Bias due to diversity of religious sentiment

In 1749, Edwards explained his views on participation in the church. Church leaders disagreed with his views. There ensued negotiations about how to resolve the disagreement. Edwards described the events, discussing the problem of bias and prejudice from "diversity of religious sentiment." 

Excerpts below.

 "Narrative of Communion Controversy"

They then told me that before they came they had agreed to make me this offer, viz. that if I would consent to it, they would endeavor to bring the precinct to yield, that I should preach in defense of my opinion, either in lectures appointed for that end or on the sabbath, as I pleased, provided I would first draw out each sermon that I intended to preach at large, in a legible character, and give it to them, and give them opportunity to carry it to some minister, that he might see it and prepare an answer to it before I delivered it; and that then I might deliver it, if I would consent that he should, from the pulpit, deliver his answer immediately after it. I told them that, at present, I could not think it to be my duty to comply with this proposal unless it were also allowed that I should beforehand see the discourse of my antagonist, as he was to see mine, that I might stand on even ground with him.

.....

Now, though perhaps it may be disputed whether unity of sentiment in matters of religion has an equal tendency to prejudice the mind in favor of particular persons and their behavior with consanguinity, yet I suppose it to be a point beyond dispute that it has a powerful tendency; and that diversity of sentiment has an equally powerful tendency to prejudice the mind, not only against the doctrines which are opposite to them we embrace, but against the persons who introduced and maintain them. 

In all ages and nations, diversity of religious sentiment has occasioned uncharitableness and censoriousness in mankind, one towards another; and the strongest prejudices which have appeared among men, have been owing to this cause. 

Very often has this been true, when the difference has been in things not fundamental. 

Such is the weakness of human nature on this point, that few men get the mastery of this temptation. Here and there, an eminently great man appears to have conquered its influence. Yet, even among great men, such instances are rare. 

How evident is it that men of distinguished learning and talents, and of eminent piety, are often powerfully influenced by this prejudice, and that insensibly to themselves. 

And if we examine the history of ages past, we shall find abundant evidence that even consanguinity itself does not render us more liable to powerful prejudices than this very cause.

The prejudices to which we are thus exposed are not merely against the persons of individuals, but against their conduct; especially against that part of their conduct which is immediately connected with their opinions, in avowing and maintaining them, and in endeavoring to introduce and propagate them. 

How greatly have the members, and especially the ministers, of the Church of England, even those among them who are great and good men, been prejudiced against the persons and conduct of Dissenters; and how have they accused them of bigotry, blind zeal and perverseness. 

And how fully has our liability to prejudices of this nature been exemplified of late in New England, in persons of opposite opinions, respecting the late extensive revivals of religion; how strong have been the prejudices occasioned thereby against the persons and conduct of many individuals. 

Especially is this true, when the controversy about the opposite religious [opinions] is in the height of agitation. 

Above all is the temptation great with respect to the individual who is the first and main occasion of the controversy, and appears as the head and spring of the whole debate, as moved and maintained in the given time and place: which is precisely my case in this existing controversy.

And the influence of this cause to bias the minds of men has been strikingly exemplified in this very case, in ministers of good characters, and such as in other respects have been very friendly to me. 

Since this controversy has existed at Northampton, I have had occasion to converse with many gentlemen in the ministry, on both sides of the question; and I find a vast difference between those on one side and those on the other, in regard to their charity with respect to me and my conduct. 

These on one side are more apt to give heed to reports which they have heard to my disadvantage, and to be inquiring with concern into such and such parts of my conduct. They receive with hesitation and difficulty the explanations which I give and the reasons which I offer, and entertain surmises and jealousies of my design and of the motives by which I am governed. 

But with the ministers of the other side, I find nothing of this nature.

It is very obvious that the members of this church themselves are perfectly aware of the tendency of religious opinions to bias the minds of men in this very controversy. 

When one of the brethren, at a late church meeting, spoke in my favor on one of the points now to be decided by the council, one of the influential members, an officer in the church and one of the church committee, rose and told the church that what that brother had said was the less to be regarded because he had manifested himself to be of my opinion with respect to the qualifications for communion. 

And the public acts of this people show how fully sensible they are of the strong tendency which sameness or contrariety of opinion will have [to] prejudice ministers and churches. 

To what other cause, but such a consciousness, shall we attribute the fact that they strive so laboriously and perseveringly to confine [me] exclusively, in the ultimate decision of this controversy, to judges who are now on their side of the question; and that they have hired able counsel to plead in their behalf for this very purpose. 

If identity or diversity of religious sentiment has no tendency to bias the mind, why all this anxiety, and effort, and expense and struggling to confine me to judges who differ from me and agree with themselves?

As to the neighboring ministers, I sincerely profess a very honorable esteem of them, and desire to be thankful that I have lived in peace and friendship with them; and I doubt not that they are gentlemen of too much judgment and candor to regard it as a personal reflection when I suppose them, as well as others, liable to prejudices from this cause. 

I presume none of us are unwilling to own that we are the subjects of the common infirmities of human nature, and doubtless we have found this the fact in so many instances, that we should in some cases not think it wisdom to trust our own hearts.

This then being so evidently the case, if the decisive council are generally of an opinion contrary to mine and the same with that of my opposers on the matter in dispute, they cannot be regarded as impartial; and of course I shall have no fair chance of justice from them, and shall not, in debating and determining the matter in controversy, stand on equal ground with the other party. 

The point then is plain, beyond all question, that I ought not to be confined to such a council.

How tender does the wisdom and justice of all civilized nations teach them to be towards everyone who has a deeply interesting cause depending, with regard to the impartiality of his judges. When he has any objections against anyone proposed as a judge, how easily do they admit them, if there be the least appearance of any circumstance tending to bias and prejudice the mind. 

How readily, for example, are such objections admitted against any who are nominated to be of a jury.

Local proximity, I fully admit, ought ordinarily to be regarded as a circumstance of weight in calling a council who are to be judges in a religious controversy; but in no measure of equal weight with the essential qualifications of the judges themselves. 

And as to the qualifications of a judge, what is so essential as impartiality? What can be more essential in a balance, which is to determine the true weight of things, than that the scales be even?

http://edwards.yale.edu/archive?path=aHR0cDovL2Vkd2FyZHMueWFsZS5lZHUvY2dpLWJpbi9uZXdwaGlsby9nZXRvYmplY3QucGw/Yy4xMTo3LndqZW8uMTU3NTEwOS4xNTc1MTE0

Manifestation of God's power

Jonathan Edwards, 1729:

If the Spirit of God should be immediately poured out, and that great work of God's power and grace should now begin, which in its progress and issue should complete this glorious effect; there must be an amazing and unparalleled progress of the work and manifestation of divine power to bring so much to pass, by the year 2000. 

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So many wonderful things are ahead. In coming days, we will see the greatest manifestations of the Savior’s power that the world has ever seen. Between now and the time He returns “with power and great glory,” (Joseph Smith-Matthew 1:36), He will bestow countless privileges, blessings, and miracles upon the faithful.

Russell M. Nelson

Prophet and president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

A gradual progress of religion

This is the sabbatism of the world; when all shall be in a holy rest, when the wolf shall dwell with the lamb, and there shall be nothing to hurt or offend, and there shall be abundance of peace, and "the earth shall be full of the knowledge of the Lord as the waters cover the seas" [Isaiah 11:9], and God's people shall dwell in quiet resting places. 

There is not the least reason to think, that all this will be brought to pass as it were at one stroke, or that from the present lamentable state of things, there should be brought about and completed the destruction of the Church of Rome, the entire extirpation of all infidelity, heresies, superstitions and schisms, through all Christendom, and the conversion of all the Jews, and the full enlightening and conversion of all Mahometan and heathen nations, through the whole earth, on every side of the globe, and from the north to the south pole, and the full settlement of all in the pure Christian faith and order, all as it were in the issue of one battle, and by means of the victory of the church in one great conflict with her enemies. 

This would contradict many things in Scripture, which represent this great event to be brought to pass by a gradual progress of religion; as leaven that gradually spreads, till it has diffused itself through the whole lump; and a plant of

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mustard, which from a very small seed, gradually becomes a great tree (Matthew 13:31–33); "and like seed which a man casts into the ground, that springs and grows up, night and day; and first brings forth the blade, then the ear, then the full corn in the ear" [Mark 4:26–28]. 

And especially would this contradict the prophetical representation in Ezekiel 47, where the progress of religion is represented by the gradual increase of the waters of the sanctuary; being first a small spring issuing out from under the threshold of the temple; and then, after they had run a thousand cubits, being up to the ankles; and at the end of another thousand cubits, up to the knees; and at the end of another thousand, up to the loins; and afterwards a great river, that could not be passed over; and being finally brought into the sea, and healing the waters even of the vast ocean. 

If the Spirit of God should be immediately poured out, and that great work of God's power and grace should now begin, which in its progress and issue should complete this glorious effect; there must be an amazing and unparalleled progress of the work and manifestation of divine power to bring so much to pass, by the year 2000. 

Would it not be a great thing, to be accomplished in one half century, that religion, in the power and purity of it, should so prevail, as to gain the conquest over all those many things that stand in opposition to it among Protestants, and gain the upper hand through the Protestant world? 

And if in another, it should go on so to prevail, as to get the victory over all the opposition and strength of the kingdom of Antichrist, so as to gain the ascendant in that which is now the popish world? 

And if in a third half century, it should prevail and subdue the greater part of the Mahometan world, and bring in the Jewish nation, in all their dispersions? 

And then in the next whole century, the whole heathen world should be enlightened and converted to the Christian faith, throughout all parts of Africa, Asia, America and Terra Australis, and be thoroughly settled in Christian faith and order, without any remainders of their old delusions and superstitions, and this attended with an utter extirpation of the remnant of the Church of Rome, and all the relics of Mahometanism, heresy, schism and enthusiasm, and a suppression of all remains of open vice and immorality, and every sort of visible enemy to true religion, through the whole earth, and bring to an end all the unhappy commotions, tumults, and calamities occasioned by such great changes, and all things so adjusted and settled through the world, that the world thenceforward should enjoy an holy rest or sabbatism?

I have thus distinguished what belongs to a bringing of the world from its present state, to the happy state of the millennium, the better to

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give a view of the greatness of the work; and not, that I pretend so much as to conjecture, that things will be accomplished just in this order. 

The whole work is not the less great and wonderful, to be accomplished in such a space of time, in whatever order the different parts of it succeed each other. 

They that think that what has been mentioned would not be swift progress, yea amazingly swift, don't consider how great the work is, and the vast and innumerable obstacles that are in the way. 

It was a wonderful thing, when the Christian religion, after Christ's ascension, so prevailed, as to get the ascendant in the Roman Empire in about 300 years; but that was nothing to this.

http://edwards.yale.edu/archive?path=aHR0cDovL2Vkd2FyZHMueWFsZS5lZHUvY2dpLWJpbi9uZXdwaGlsby9nZXRvYmplY3QucGw/Yy40OjUud2plby4xMzAzNzg0LjEzMDM3ODcuMTMwMzc5MS4xMzAzNzk4LjEzMDM4MDEuMTMwMzgwNS4xMzAzODEy 

Wearing away sandy foundations

 708. CHRISTIAN RELIGION.

Though some may be ready to object against the Christian religion that there seem to be innumerable difficulties and inconsistences attending it, which would appear to be insolvable but only as a multitude of heads have been employed for many ages to find out solutions for 'em, innumerable attempts have been made, and multitudes have been rejected one after another as insufficient, for the sake of others that have been thought less liable to objection, till at length such solutions have been found out for many of them as are in some measure plausible: but there is nothing— no history, nor scheme of doctrine, nor set of principles whatever, however inconsistent, absurd and confused— but what might be made to seem consistent at this rate; no difficulties nor inconsistences, but what something plausible might be found out to color it over and hide it, by so much search and study, by a combination of such multitudes through so many ages.

To this I answer, that as there have been a long time to answer objections, so there have been many ages to strengthen them. 

As there have been many ages to solve difficulties, so there have been as many to find out difficulties and inconsistences. 

Falsehood in things that are in like manner complicated, as all that is contained in the whole compass of the scheme of the Christian religion, must needs be attended with numberless things that may discover it, more and more of which will appear by time. And besides, there has been all this time to make difficulties more plain, and bring out inconsistences more to the light, and by thorough

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and exact consideration to make them more manifest and apparent, by setting all things forth more exactly and minutely as they be. 

Time is a thing that wonderfully brings truth to light, and wears off by degrees false colorings and disguises. If the truth be of that side that would have most advantage by time, appearing inconsistences, being founded on truth, would grow plainer and plainer, and difficulties more and more evident. 

It would discover more circumstances to strengthen and confirm them, and pretenses of solution would appear more and more evidently absurd and ridiculous. 

When there are contending parties that contend by argument and search and inquiry, time greatly helps that party that have truth of their side, and weakens the contrary side. It gradually wears away their sandy foundation, and rots away the building that is not made of substantial materials. 

The Christian religion has evermore in all ages had its enemies, and that among those that were learned men. Yea, 'tis observable that there have commonly been some of the most subtile of men to scan the Christian scheme, and to discover the objections that lie against it, and have done it with a good will to overthrow it. Thus it was in Judea in the infancy of the church, the scribes and Pharisees and the wise men among the Jews employed all their wisdom against it. 

Thus in the first ages of the church not many wise, not many mighty, not many noble, were called; but Christianity had the wisdom, learning and subtilty of the world to oppose it. 

So of latter ages: how many learned and subtile men have done their utmost against Christianity, so that the length of time that there has been for persons to strengthen their own side in this controversy, that is brought as an objection against Christianity, is much more of an argument for it, than an objection against it.

["sandy foundation" is a nonbiblical term found in the Book of Mormon three times]

Rational men of understanding

III. If it be so that a Christian spirit is a truly noble spirit, hence we learn that Christianity is the highest ornament to great men. 

Meanness and baseness of spirit don't suit greatness of place and character, but it becomes such as are advanced above other men in station to [be] of a noble mind: 

it becomes them to be rational men, men of understanding, wisdom and prudence; 

it becomes them to disregard those things that are little and despicable, and principally to regard those things that are of the most superior nature; 

it becomes them to abhor those things that are vile and filthy, and to do and to love what is pure and honorable; 

it becomes such not to be slaves to their passions, but to be of calm and serene minds; 

it becomes great men to be men of true courage and fortitude, to be of a liberal and bountiful disposition and to be public-spirited. 

Certainly these things do become great men; but as we have shown, 'tis Christianity only that does truly give them [a truly noble spirit].

There are many great men that, being naturally as other men of sinful nature that are ignorant of these things, they don't know what is true nobleness and greatness of mind. They are strangers to Christianity. 1 Corinthians 1:26, "Not many mighty, not many noble are called." But 'tis the effect of ignorance and blindness, and because they don't know what would be an ornament to themselves.

They are often ready to imagine that they have greater liberty than other men to gratify their appetites. They, being great, are impatient of restraint. But if it be so, then it is because they have a greater liberty to be base and inferior than other men. But however the corrupt and ignorant imaginations of many great men may think the contrary, yet 'tis the highest honor and dignity of great men to fear God devoutly and humbly to worship and adore him, to humble themselves greatly before him, with abasement and contrition of heart to repent of sin. It is an honor to a great man to be meek and patient; 'tis their honor to be

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ready to forgive injuries. Some think it their honor to show the greatest resentment of an affront offered to them, but 'tis a mistake: 'tis a token of a mean mind easily put into a ruffle. 'Tis an honor to a great man if he done wrong, gone out of the way, to acknowledge his fault, to be ready to own his miscarriages. Such things as these are an honor to kings and princes and all in public place, and the contrary is a great dishonor and is unbecoming a high character. Such things as these were an honor to King David, and Solomon, and Hezekiah and Josiah. They were an honor to them in the sight of their own people that they ruled over, and in the sight of other nations that were round about them, and will be to their honor to the end of the world.

IV. If it be so, that to entertain and practice Christianity shows true nobleness of mind, hence learn why God will make Christians to be kings in another world. We read that they shall be made kings and priests, that they shall reign forever and ever, that they shall sit with Christ on his throne, that they shall receive a crown of glory, and a heavenly kingdom is appointed to [them]: it shall be in reward for their nobleness of spirit. So far as they are of a Christian temper, they are of a disposition and temper fit for kings, fit for such a high state of honor and advancement. As their minds are exalted above the minds of other men, so God, who orders all things beautifully, will make their state and condition higher than the state of others.

http://edwards.yale.edu/archive?path=aHR0cDovL2Vkd2FyZHMueWFsZS5lZHUvY2dpLWJpbi9uZXdwaGlsby9nZXRvYmplY3QucGw/Yy4xMzoxMi53amVvLjY1NTYxNi42NTU2MjAuNjU1NjIz

Stiffneckedness

"Stiffneckedness" is another non-biblical term found in Latter-day Saint scriptures that Jonathan Edwards used, as found in the 1808 edition of his collected works, on sale in Palmyra in the early 1820s in the bookstore Joseph visited weekly to get the newspaper for his father. 

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The fruits of Moses' unbelief, which provoked God to shut him out of Canaan, and not to suffer him to partake of those great things God was about to do for Israel on earth, were chiefly these two things: First, his mingling bitterness with his zeal. He had a great zeal for God, and he could not bear to see the intolerable stiff-neckedness of the people, that they did not acknowledge the work of God, and were not convinced by all his wonders that they had seen; but human passion was mingled with his zeal.

1. Jonathan Edwards. The Great Awakening (WJE Online... [page 429 | Paragraph | SubSect | Section]

(Wordcruncher 18c: 1740s; 1742, N04004 / 5. PART IV.Shewing what,47¶ 1808 Kindle at 21423)

Their stiffneckedness was their moral Wickedness, Obstinacy, and perverseness of Heart: By Righteousness, therefore, on the contrary, is meant their moral Vertue, and rectitude of Heart, and Life

(Wordcruncher 18c: 1730s; 1738, N03467 / 1.2.1,71¶) 1808 Kindle at 54087]

The Temptation at this Day is exceeding great, to both those Errors that Moses was guilty of; there is great Temptation to Bitterness and corrupt Passion with Zeal; for there is so much unreasonable Opposition made against this glorious Work of GOD, and so much Stiff-neckedness manifested in Multitudes of this Generation, notwithstanding all the great & wonderful Works in which GOD has passed before them, that it greatly tends to provoke the Spirits of such as have the Interest of this Work at Heart, so as to move ’em to speak unadvisedly with their Lips.

(18c: 1740s; 1742, N04004 / 5. PART IV.Shewing what,47¶) [1808 Kindle at 21435]

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stiffneckedness in the scriptures

Old Testament (0) [stiffnecked 8]

New Testament (0) [stiffnecked 1]

Book of Mormon (4) [stiffnecked 20]

Doctrine and Covenants (1) [stiffnecked 1]

Pearl of Great Price (0)

Edwards (3 in 1808) [stiffnecked 37]

Evans (7) [3 of which are Jonathan Edwards]

[note: Yale doesn’t find stiffneckedness or stiff-neckedness, but it’s in the database]

11 Now this he spake because of the stiffneckedness of Laman and Lemuel;

(1 Nephi 2:11)

7 And now I, Nephi, cannot say more; the Spirit stoppeth mine utterance, and I am left to mourn because of the unbelief, and the wickedness, and the ignorance, and the stiffneckedness of men;

(2 Nephi 32:7)

17 For behold, king Benjamin was a holy man, and he did reign over his people in righteousness; and there were many holy men in the land, and they did speak the word of God with power and with authority; and they did use much sharpness because of the stiffneckedness of the people—

(Words of Mormon 1:17)

18 And now, because of stiffneckedness and unbelief they understood not my word; therefore I was commanded to say no more of the Father concerning this thing unto them.

(3 Nephi 15:18)

6 For behold, I revoke the commandment which was given unto my servants Selah J. Griffin and Newel Knight, in consequence of the stiffneckedness of my people which are in Thompson, and their rebellions.

(Doctrine and Covenants 56:6)

Smooth faced hypocrites

This is one of hundreds of rhetorical connections between Joseph Smith and Jonathan Edwards that I will be occasionally adding to this blog.

Joseph Smith used a nonbiblical term in a sermon dated May 21, 1843. Levi Richards reported that Joseph said,

I love that man better who swears a stream as long as My arm & administering to the poor— & dividing his substance than the long smooth faced hypocrite, I dont want you to think I am very righteous, for I am not very righteous, God judges man according to the light he give them

https://www.josephsmithpapers.org/paper-summary/discourse-21-may-1843-as-reported-by-levi-richards/1

Willard Richards reported it this way:

I love that man better who swears a stream as long as my arm. and administ[er]ing to the poor & dividi[n]g his substance. than the long smoothed faced hypo[c]rites

https://www.josephsmithpapers.org/paper-summary/discourse-21-may-1843-as-reported-by-willard-richards/2

The sermon appears in History, 1838-1856, 

“I love that man better who swears a stream as long as my arm, yet deals justice to his neighbors and mercifully deals his substance to the poor, than the long smooth faced hypocrite.

https://www.josephsmithpapers.org/paper-summary/history-1838-1856-volume-d-1-1-august-1842-1-july-1843/198

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It turns out that in the 1808 edition of Jonathan Edwards' works that was on sale in Palmyra in the early 1820s in the bookstore Joseph frequented as a boy, Edwards used a similar nonbiblical term when contrasting the city of Zion with Sodom.

Kindle location 60613:

'Tis you that I have been all this while speaking of under this doctrine: you are the inhabitants of Sodom. Perhaps you may look on your circumstances as not very dreadful, but you dwell in Sodom. Though you may be reformed, and appear with a clean outside, and a smooth face to the world, yet as long as you are in a natural condition, you are impure inhabitants of Sodom. The world of mankind is divided into two companies, and as it were into two cities. There is [the] city of Zion, the church of God, the holy and beloved city; and there is Sodom...

[available online at http://edwards.yale.edu/archive?path=aHR0cDovL2Vkd2FyZHMueWFsZS5lZHUvY2dpLWJpbi9uZXdwaGlsby9nZXRvYmplY3QucGw/Yy4xODoxNC53amVvLjk4NTEwNw== ]

In the Evans database on Wordcruncher, this usage by Edwards of the term "smooth face" is the first of seven that appear in a search. None of the other six have a connotation related to hypocrisy. The term "smooth faced" appears once in connection with an idol people put on their toilets.

In the same publication (Kindle location 56685), Edwards wrote this in a sermon on hypocrisy:

What value would you your self set upon it. if a man should seem to Carry it Respectfully to you & show you with a fair face talking smooth & making a show a friendship when you Know at the same time that he was Inwardly your mortally Enemy. would you Look on your self obliged for such Respect & Kindness yea. would you not abhor it.

[available online at http://edwards.yale.edu/archive?path=aHR0cDovL2Vkd2FyZHMueWFsZS5lZHUvY2dpLWJpbi9uZXdwaGlsby9nZXRvYmplY3QucGw/Yy40OTozMC53amVvLjIyMTI5OTI=]

In a related context, (Kindle location 59134 in the 1808 edition), Edwards wrote this:

This will be the distinguishing condemnation of gospel sinners. John 3:18, "He that believeth not is condemned already, because he hath not believed in the name of the only begotten Son of God." That outward smoothness of your carriage towards Christ, that appearance of respect to him in your looks, your speeches, and gestures don't argue but that you set him at nought in your heart. There may be much of these outward shows of respect, and yet you be like Judas that betrayed the Son of man with a kiss;

http://edwards.yale.edu/archive?path=aHR0cDovL2Vkd2FyZHMueWFsZS5lZHUvY2dpLWJpbi9uZXdwaGlsby9nZXRvYmplY3QucGw/Yy4xODoxNS53amVvLjEwOTM0OTM=